Fathering

The first article that addresses fatherhood is written by Richard Pleck and entitled, "American Fathering in Historical Perspective." This article analyzes the dominant images of fatherhood in earlier periods of United States history and considers there impact today.

The first time period that is considered is the eighteenth and early nineteenth century. In this period of history, the father was seen as the moral overseer. "Fathers were thought to have far greater responsibility for, and influence on, their children. Prescriptions for parents were addressed almost entirely to fathers; the responsibilities of mothers were rarely mentioned" (351). "Fathers were viewed as the family's ultimate source of moral teaching and worldly judgments" (352). Fatherhood in this time included a variety of responsibilities. "Fathers were supposed to concern themselves with the moral and religious education of the young. If the father was literate, he should teach his children reading and writing. The father was also responsible for guiding his sons into a occupational calling. He also played a key role in the courtship and marriage making of both his sons and daughters" (352). "In this time relationships between fathers and children, especially sons, often had strong emotional components" (352). The father was very involved in all aspects of his children's lives during this time period.

However, from the early nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, the role of the father changed. This father was known as the distant breadwinner. In this period "a gradual and steady shift toward a greater role for the mother, and a decreased and more indirect role for the father is clear and unmistakable" (353). "To the extent that either parent was involved in the marital choices of their children, it was now usually the mother. As opposed to the early time period, letters and diaries now indicated that mothers were more emotionally entangled with sons well into adulthood" (353). "This period also saw the development of the contemporary presumption of maternal custody following divorce. By the beginning of the twentieth century, psychiatrists gave almost exclusive attention to the mother" (353). There is one major reason for the decline in the father's role. "A major structural source for the decline in the father's role and increased maternal influence was the emergence of new paternal work patterns away from the family, brought about by industrialization" (354). "As geographical distance between the workplace and the home increased, so too did the father's direct involvement with his children" (354). This new kind of father "focused entirely on breadwinning was depicted in early-twentieth century advertisements" (354). "Nevertheless, the father continued to set the official standard of morality and to be the final arbiter of family discipline, but he did so at more of a remove than before" (355).

The next period that introduced a change in the role of the father was from 1940 to 1965. In this period the father was known as the sex role model. "During the postwar years the heightened critique of mothering ushered in a new perception of the father's direct importance in child rearing as a sex role model. This new conception did not become dominant: the distant father-breadwinner still prevailed. Nonetheless the sex role model interpretation of fathering is historically important as the first positive image of involved fatherhood since the moral overseer model" (356). This sex role model figure emerged from the theory that too much mothering and inadequate fathering lead to insecurity in male identity. "Fathers came to be seen as essential for the sex role development of their daughters as well" (357). "This new father was supposed to be the principal transmitter of culturally based conceptions of masculinity and femininity" (357).

Pleck states,"There is no question that the father-breadwinner model established in the nineteenth and early-twentieth century remains culturally dominant today, both in fathers' actual behavior and its media representation," (358). However, a new image summed up in the term "the new father" is clearly on the rise in print and broadcast media. "This new father differs from older images of involved fatherhood in several ways: he is present at the birth; he is involved with his children as infants, not just when they are older; he participates in the actual day-to-day work of child care, and not just play; he is involved with his daughters as much as his sons" (358). "This is due in part to the fact that wives are more often employed and do less in the family when they are and men are spending more time in the family, both absolutely and relative to women" (359). This "new father" exists but the models from the past are still present and continue to have influence on fathers. I believe that the expectations for fathers today are that they get more involved in the family and home life. However, I do believe that the traditional image of the father as the breadwinner is still very prevalent. Mr. mom is not that common, even now as women have made advancements in the workplace. Father's for the most part are still expected by society to be the one that works and provides financial security for the family.

The second article that I am going to address in regards to fathering is written by Dorothy Roberts and entitled, "The Absent Black Father." This article looks at the myth of the "absent black father" and the societal forces that have discouraged family participation of Black fathers.

"While Black fathers are disparaged for their absence, a number of societal forces work to discourage their family participation" (149). "Some argue that the promise of welfare benefits induces childbearing out of wedlock and some Black feminists point to a positive cultural tradition that is more accepting of unmarried mothers. Some suggest that we can view Black single mothers as resistors against patriarchy" (149). "One major societal force is the effects of racial repression, most notably high rates of unemployment and incarceration that continue to contribute to Black fathers' absence from the home" (149). "Black men's unemployment rates are more than double those of white men. Black men's declining ability to contribute financially to their households is a major cause of fatherlessness in Black homes. Black fathers are also separated from their families by imprisonment. Blacks, mostly men, make up over half of the one million inmates in American jails" (150). These forces show that Black men do not value family relationships any less than other men do. But many "have been restrained by unemployment, imprisonment, and other deprivations from developing the family ties they desire" (150).

There are elements of Black fatherhood that led to the creation of the myth of the Absent Black Father. "The elements of what society considers a "good father" have often been elements that the Black father cannot fulfill. What condemns the absent Black father is not his lack of involvement with his children, but his marital and economic status. A good father is a married breadwinner. And Black men typically have not fit that role" (154). "The economic definition of the father has excluded the Black family from society's respect and support. It has branded Black men as irresponsible fathers" (154). "The absent Black father refers mainly to those children whose parents are not married. However, if further attention was paid to Black fathering it would reveal that many presumably "absent" Black fathers actually play an important role in child rearing. Many Black men stay closely tied to their children even when they are not married to the mother or unable to provide financial support" (153). In this case, Black men have their own style of parenting, just as Black women have a distinct notion of motherhood. This pattern of behavior contradicts the myth that they are completely absent with no contact with their children.

In conclusion, the myth was created from our history. "Black men were depicted as menacing brutes or ridiculous buffoons, disparaging images that justified their exclusion from citizenship early in this nation's history" (148). "Society made Black men out so that they were not supposed to be role models for their children. Black men should be entitled to dominate their families as White men have but they have never been entitled to do so" (148). Because of this, they were seen as "absent". But even with the social forces against them, they still have proven that they can stay involved in their own style.

The third and final article in regards to fathering was written by Francine Deutsch and is entitled, "Halving it all: The Mother and Mr. Mom." This article addresses the revolution that is occurring in the homes of blue-collar families. This revolution is alternating work shifts, in which the mother's and father's are taking turns taking care of their children while their spouses work at paid jobs.

One of the main questions is why do couples with children decide to work alternating shifts, and how is that decision related to their social class status? "One of the main reasons couples alternate shifts is money. It is cheaper to avoid using paid child care. In over 80% of the alternating-shift couples, at least one spouse mentioned money when asked why they share the care of their children they way they do" (117). Alternating shifters have the lowest incomes. "Some thought they simply couldn't afford day care; others maintained that they could have afforded it, but believed alternating work shifts was economically wise" (117). "Some reasoned it was impractical to spend so much of their income on day care. Money maters, but money is not the only reason that parents invoke for alternating shifts. Many of the couples believed that children should only be cared for by family" (118). Alternating shift parents give a few reasons for avoiding day care. "First, they fear that terrible dangers await children who are cared for by strangers. The second reason is the parents "resolve to inculcate their children with their own values" (119). Now one might wonder why middle class families do not have these same concerns when it comes to sending their children to day care. "One reason could be that because blue-collar families have less money, the child care that they can pay for might be worse. Secondly, even if the blue-collar families could get the "best" institutional day care, that institution might reflect middle-class values and be less responsive to their concerns than to the concerns of middle-class couples" (119). It is incredibly clear how all of this is related to social class status. If you have less money, you will be less willing or unable to pay for day care, so the only other option is to chose the alternating shifts method. Also related to social class status is the fears with day care. Lower income families will be nervous that the specific day cares they can afford will not be as good, and therefore choose instead to do the alternating shifts.

Another issue to address in regards to alternating shifts is how these families' division of labor compare to there gender ideologies. Ironically "there is more support for traditional gender ideology within the working class than among the highly educated groups in the United States" (125). "By clinging to the core aspects of the men going to work while the wives stay at home to tend to the children, they can convince themselves that they are maintaining traditional gender identities despite their nontraditional arrangements" (125). These couples try to keep intact three aspects of gender identity: "the father is the breadwinner; the mother does not derive a primary sense of identity from work; and the mother is the primary parent" (125). "In almost all alternating-shift families, the parent's stressed the men's breadwinning roles by treating the father's job as the more important job in the family. These families structured their work lives to enable the father to retain the role of principal breadwinner. If the mother had a higher rate of pay, then the father would work more hours so that he still earned the most money" (126). These families wanted the father to fit into their gender ideology of him as the breadwinner. "Similarly, mother's in the alternating-shift families are still regarded as the number-one parent, regardless of how much time fathers spend with their children. Dads may take over many of the functions that mothers have traditionally performed, but the mother is still "the mother" (129). Women retain this special role in two ways. "First the mother try to tailor there work lives so they can be with the children at times they define as key times. Secondly, mothers retain their primary position through the claim that they are still the center of emotional life in the family and that they should be" (130). "Alternating shift couples believe in an ideal family life that features breadwinning fathers and stay-at-home moms. They are far from living that ideal. However, they manage the marked difference between there behavior and their ideology by maintaining core aspects of parental gender identity" (132).

To be completely frank, I hope that I do not have to even consider choosing an alternating-shift arrangement for my family. I hope that my family is financially secure enough so that both parents do not have to work when the children are young. But if I was put in a situation where both my husband and I needed to work for financial reasons when the kids were young, I think I would choose an alternating-shift arrangement because that way both parents can spend ideal time with the kids. However, on the other hand I would worry about how little my husband and I would see each other. It is a tough decision and honestly I don't know for sure what I would choose if faced with that choice.